Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Lab Report Example DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) represent the most dangerous type of DNA damage since a single DSB is capable of causing cell death or disturbing the genomic integrity of the cell (Jackson and Bartek, 2009). DSBs are difficult to repair and extremely harmful (Khanna and Jackson, 2001). DSBs generally form when two single-strand breaks (SSBs) occur in close proximity, or when a SSB or certain other lesions are encountered during DNA-replication (Jackson and Bartek, 2009). Ionising radiation (IR) and chemotherapeutic compounds used in cancer also generate DSBs. Mediated by DSBs, DNA lesions develop as a result of recombination between different loci (Kongruttanachok et al., 2010). Thus, a cell constantly faces the risk of DNA damage caused exogenously as well as from an incorrect incorporation of base pairs occurring during normal replication. The chemical changes occurring in the DNA structure, therefore, must be corrected in order to preserve the encoded genetic information. Mechanis ms of DNA damage repair exist which involve systems that detect DNA damage, signal its location and bring about the repair. The DNA-damage responses (DDR) are physiologically very important as each of the nearly 1013 cells in the human body experiences innumerable DNA lesions per day (Lindahl and Barnes, 2000). Nuclear Excision Repair (NER) is a repair mechanism in the cell to deal with DNA damage caused exogenously by UV rays and ionizing radiation, besides other types of chemical alteration to the DNA (Wood, 1997). Mismatch repair (MMR) is an evolutionarily conserved DNA damage fixing process that is employed by the cell when base pairs are added incorrectly during replication (Kunkel and Erie, 2005). At least ten different DNA repair processes are operative in higher organisms (Reed, 2010). Platinum-based compounds e.g., cisplatin, oxaliplatin, satraplatin etc. interfere with the repair mechanisms to effect programmed cell death, or apoptosis. For example, cisplatin when introduc ed into the nucleus, forms adducts (Fichtinger-Sherpman, et al., 1985). The formation of the bulky adducts causes torsional strain on the DNA strand prompting the cell to invoke the NER and/or the Mismatch repair enzymes. However, the repair mechanisms are generally unable to effectively correct the damage as the platinum adduct is a non-native structure, and this leads to permanent DNA damage causing apoptosis of the potentially defective cell (Agarwal et al., 1998). The inactivation of repair processes could have wide-ranging consequences, both beneficial and detrimental. In the context of the former, DNA damage and repair has been the major target of anticancer therapy. Serious attempts are being made to modulate these processes in order to improve their efficacy in the treatment of cancer (Reed, 2010). While DSBs are processed by a number of DNA repair pathways depending partly on the phases of the cell cycle, NER is the only mechanism known to remove bulky DNA adducts, includin g those formed by platinum-based anticancer drugs, from human cells (Readon et al., 1999). A majority of DSBs are repaired by non-homologous end-joining repair (NHEJ) mediated by either

Comparing movie Genres Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Comparing movie Genres - Essay Example Revolts against slavery in interior parts of Africa and Asia have been focused more in action movies. Action movies use racism as a theme in scenarios involving revenge against the wrong doers or as an act of dominance towards the discriminated people. An instance where a good guy who is usually white investigates the stealing of robbery and jewels associated with black people also depict racism in action movies. These movies always portray them as the criminals. Movies which show a villain extensively using drugs, explosives, and alcohol are more often a person who is African American. In movies showing war between two countries, racism is the theme as one nation destroys the other minor/poor country. In horror movies, stories are more fictional and imaginary. Even in these imaginary stories, racism has been highlighted with the evil/ man-eater not being a white. These haunted stories like usually revolve around a group of people who are trapped in a forest to a witch/ man-eater (us ually the non-white), eventually killing it. The movie ‘Friday the 13th’ depicts how the black guy and the Asian guy are mocked at. In one of the instances, the black guy expresses his sexual desires, but is only allowed to look at the rich girls around (Champion, 2009). The effect of racism on the larger audience through action movies has a positive effect. Action movies address racism with its heart touching and eye opening scenes more so with the events which have occurred in the past. The revolts against racism which have occurred in the history are presented in movies have a motivational message attached with it. The audience realizes how inhuman racism is and gets the feel good factor about their revolutionary heroes. In contrast to horror movies, action movies give a meaningful message to the audience. The genres of Action and Horror address sex through most of the movies. In horror movies, it is more used to show how sex can make the best slip. In the movie â₠¬ËœA Nightmare on Elm Street’, there is a scene where a girl is taking a bath, in which the bath becomes a deep pool of water (â€Å"A Nightmare on Elm Street†, 2011). These scenes though do not send a strong message, but are extremely important to show how the character blends into the story. Intense horror movies show sex between the good guy and the evil who is disguised as an attractive women and the evil later killing the guy. These instances address on how even the most vigil person can fall to attractive women. In ‘Scream’, a teenage girl shows another teen girl a photograph on her cell phone of a man's bare abdomen and chest, and the girl says that he's really hot (â€Å"Scream4†, 2011). These scenes go hand in hand with the horror movies to oscillate the emotions of the audience and to keep the thrill going. Action movies address the theme of sex more cleverly. The main idea of including such scenes in action movies is to deceive the gangst er or the lead in the movie and getting critical information from him. The movie ‘Bad Company’ shows how the protagonist of the movie is tempted to cheat on his girlfriend (â€Å"Bad Company†, 2011). An action movie addresses the theme of sex with attractive ladies making out with criminals or the hero in bars or at lodges. In some movies, these scenes are repeated. It shows that the goons in the movie wish to be surrounded by attractive and seductive women most of the times.

Athletic Directors Leadership Traits and Job Satisfaction

Athletic Directors Leadership Traits and Job Satisfaction This chapter will provide a review of the literature and research related to the purpose of the study. Because research identifying specific leadership traits of high school athletic directors is almost nonexistent, this literature review begins with a summary of: (a) leadership defined (b) general educational leadership traits and theories, (c) roles and responsibilities, (d) job satisfaction and finish with the (e) summary. Leadership Defined Leadership is a term that can be found throughout all workplaces. The meaning of leadership can be defined in a variety of ways. According to Fiedler (1967), leadership is defined by managing group work with appropriate control and organization. According to Dr. Jamie Williams (Sugarman, 1999), leadership is like gravity. You know its there, you know it exists, but how do you define it? Nahavandi (2008) explained that researchers disagree with leadership definitions because of the fact that leadership is a complicated phenomenon mixed with the leader, the follower, and the situation. For example, Coach John Woodens ability to motivate his mens basketball program at UCLA to win 11 national championships during his coaching tenure provides evidence of Woodens transformational leadership. Wooden inspired his players to play to the best of their ability and to never accept losing. He was also instrumental in making sure that his players stayed very humble in the process. Hughes et al. (2008) explained that some researchers have paid attention to the leaders personal traits while others have focused on the relationship between leaders and followers or situational factors that influence leadership behavior. Roach and Behling (1984) defined leadership as the procedure of guiding an organized team toward achieving its objectives. This is definition is accepted by any sports team that wins a championship or achieves their team goals. Rost (1993) defined leadership as influence dynamics among leaders and followers who attempt to bring true organizational changes that reflect their common goals. Daft (1999) stated that in the new era represented by a dramatic change, an old philosophy of control-oriented leadership is not effective anymore, and that leaders should make effort to retain soft elements of leadership qualities in addition to hard management skills. Watkins and Rikard (1991) defined leadership as the process of influencing the activities of an organized group toward goal achievement. There are many categories, given the different ways the influencing process is played out. Three such categories are transactional leadership transformational leadership, and situational leadership. Leadership Traits and Theories Theories of leadership have evolved and debate over the act of leadership, and what is required, continues. This study will explore the leadership traits of high school athletic directors and if they correlate with job satisfaction. According to Young, et al (2010), the documentation of educational leadership traits for high school athletic directors is scarce. However, the traits of organization, roles and responsibilities and job satisfaction of high school athletic directors are prevalent in previous research. Since the twentieth century there have been many researching leadership and creating theories to go with their findings (Dulewicz Higgs, 2003; Grint, 2000; Higgs, 2002; Kets de Vries, 1993). Leadership theories can be grouped into one of eight theory categories. These eight theories are the Great Man theory, trait theories, contingency theory, situational theories, behavioral theories, participative theories, management theories and relationship theories. This research will look into the details of the trait theory, behavioral theories, situational theories, and transformational and transactional leadership. Trait theories will identify which characteristics are shared by leaders. According to Shead (2010) since certain traits are associated with proficient leadership, it assumes that if you could identify people with the correct traits, you will be able to identify leaders and people with leadership potential. Trait theory takes on the assumption that leaders are born with leadership traits or not. This idea appears to be incorrect. Shead (2010) states that it is possible for someone to change their character traits for the worse and that someone who is known for being honest can learn to become deceitful. In addition, someone who is deceitful can learn to become honest. Often times we look for honesty, drive, goal oriented, competent and intelligent people to become our leaders. Between 1940 and into the late 1990s, researchers (e.g., Dulewicz Higg s, 2003; Partington, 2003) categorized approaches to leadership theory improvements into several schools, according to time order. Trait school, behavioral school, contingency school, and visionary school were considered the four major trait schools. The trait school leadership theories were largely popular in the 1940s. Stogdill (1974) referred to the Great Man Theory, which stated that leaders are different from followers due to common leader traits. Additionally, Turner (1999) supported Stogdills (1974) claim about leaders being different from followers by explaining that leaders are born into being great leaders and not made into great leaders. Hogan (1991) explained that traits refer to repetitive patterns in a persons behavior and the trait approach attempts to explain peoples behavioral trends in terms of certain strengths of traits that they retain. Stogdill (1974) also stated that leaders traits are shown through hardwork, friendliness, conscientiousness, and willingness to take on responsibility rather than personality, ambition and physical makeup such as height. Turners (1999) research supports Stogdill (1974) by showing that effective managers have traits such as energy and drive, self-confidence, and highly effectiv e communication skills. The behavioral approach to leadership was well studied between the 1940s and 1960s. During this time period, researchers from the University of Michigan and The Ohio State University posited that leaders behaviors can be explained within two independent factors called consideration and initiating structure (Fleishman, 1973; Halpin Winer, 1957). According to the Ohio State researchers, the term consideration applies to the degree in which leaders show support and friendship towards followers, while the phrase initiating structure applies to the manner in which leaders stress the importance of achieving goals and tasks. According to Bower Seashore (1966), the behavioral students conducted by the University of Michigan researchers posited that effective group performance shows a relationship with four dimensions of leadership behaviors: support, interaction facilitation, goal emphasis, and work facilitation. The leader support behaviors shows a relationship with concern for subordinat es, while interaction facilitation shows a relationship with reconciling relational conflicts among group members. Bower and Seashore (1966) explained that in sum, goal emphasis and work facilitation are job-centered dimensions, but leaders support and interaction facilitation are employee-centered dimensions. Recent studies by (e.g., Curphy, 2003; Smither, London, Flautt, Vargas, Kucine, 2003) have claimed that considering certain leadership behaviors are adopted for effective leadership, leadership can be developed. The behavioral school states that, leaders can change their behavior via reflection, organizational development systems, and 360-degree feedback amongst others (McCauley, Ruderman, Ohlott, Morrow, 1994). According to Bass (1985), these two categories are points on a continuum of leadership behavior. Athletic directors are going to fall into one of the two leadership categories. Bass (1998) described transformational leadership as behavior that transcends the need for rewards and appeals to the followers higher order needs, inspiring them to act in the best interest of the organization rather than their own self-interest. Thus, leaders must possess high ethical and moral standards in order to provide the highest reward to the organization. One might infer that even the most ethically and morally charged athletic director cannot possibly provide the highest rewards each and every year to the organization that he/she represents. However, ethics and morals are two very important characteristics in an individual when determining the type of leader one might become. Leadership styles are known to change, and thus a transformational leader could dip into the realm of transactional leadership and vice versa. Generally, personality and character traits can provide us with the determination as to whether or not you are a transformational or transactional leader. According to Bass (1998) transformational leadership is universally applicable. He proposed that regardless of culture, transformational leaders inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the group or organization. Followers become motivated to expend greater effort than would usually be expected. If an AD exemplified Basss transformational leadership model, coaches in the school would offer up all that they have to support the athletic director and school that they work for. For example, the athletic director buys-in to the complete offerings of his/her current employer as we continue to transform the area of athletics. According to Sugarman (1999), excellence in leadership is acquired by people who have a strong sense of vision, have passion and are able to get people to commit 100% and take the necessary action to see that vision becomes a reality. Great leaders excel in the art of communication and motivation, mutual respect, instilling confidence and enthusiasm, and showing credibility and integrity on a consistent basis. Various high school athletic directors and coaches all across the United States create programs teaching their student athletes leadership styles and how they can be applied. One popular program that was used to establish athletic leadership for Wheeler High Schools football team in Valparaiso, Indiana is based off the acronym for L.E.A.D.E.R.S.H.I.P. Coach Snodgrass of Wheeler High School utilized the L.E.A.D.E.R.S.H.I.P. program that he learned while attending the Indiana Football Coaches Association Annual Clinic in 2003. According to Snodgrass (2004), the acronym is as foll ows: Influence, Integrity, Communication, Attitude, Courage, Sacrifice, Goals, Servant-Hood, Vision, and Perseverance. Each one of these terms forms a strong resilient leadership program for any athletic program. The athletic director must decide how important it is for him or her to provide this type of leadership program to his or her student athletes, school administration, and school community. With the proper education comes an ability to manage, facilitate, and guide. A true leader, however, does not simply read books or study what leadership should be. Rather, a true leader is someone who shows transformational or transactional traits naturally. Providing a program like the one that Wheeling High School provided for its football players shows that the leadership is transformational at this school. Giving the students an opportunity to understand what leadership is all about and how leadership is applied in everyday life allowed those football players at Wheeling High School i n Valparaiso, IN to become stronger individuals in the classroom, community, and field. The football coach for this team showed his athletic director a true meaning of transformational leadership. Bolman and Deal (2003) stated that leadership is universally offered as a panacea for almost any social problem (p. 336). Within the athletic arena, leadership is a term used to describe any event which coaches, staff members, administrators, and ADs go above and beyond their normal work day. Bolman and Deal (2003) noted further that if leaders lose their legitimacy then they lose the capacity to lead. For example, a high school athletic director has authority but not necessarily leadership. Additionally, a leader is also not necessarily a manager. Many managers do not know how to lead. Bennis and Nanus (1985) asserted that managers do things right, and leaders do the right thing. It is very important for high school athletic directors to understand the distinction between the terms leader and manager because high school athletic directors will not produce a successful leadership style if they cannot distinguish differences in leading and managing. Leadership and management can be situational. According to Hersey and Blanchard (2001) the situational leadership model combines task and people into a two-by-two chart, which shows four possible leadership styles: telling, selling, participating, and delegating. Bolman and Deal (2003) stated this model distinguishes four levels of subordinate readiness and argues that the appropriate leadership style depends on the situation. The four styles are as follows: Leadership through participation involves having a high relationship with ones subordinates with low tasks involved. This style is used when followers are able but unwilling or insecure to accomplish the task at hand. According to Sugarmann (1999), Vince Lombardi says, Leaders are made, they are not born; and they are made just like anything else has ever been made in this country by hard work. Additionally, Sugarmann (1999) stated that leading by example is paramount to becoming known as a great leader. Leadership through selling is exemplified when there is a high relationship value with followers and the tasks level is high. This style is used when followers are unable, but willing or motivated to accomplish the tasks at hand. The third style is leadership through delegation, and this is used with there is minimal relationship with followers and a low task requirement. The style is used when followers are able and willing or motivated to accomplish the tasks at hand. The four possible leadership styles explained by Hersey and Blanchards (2001) situational leadership model are significant in the maturation process of a high school athletic director. Each one of these leadership styles could be used during varying circumstances within the athletic directors position. Hersey and Blanchards (2001) situational leadership concept provides supporting information that in order to become an effective leader one must consider all four styles within the situational leadership model. Situational Leadership Situational leadership is another theory that focuses on the development of the follower and styles of each leader being exhibited. Hersey and Blanchard (2001) stated that there are four leadership styles (S1 to S4) that match the development levels (D1 to D4) of the followers. The four styles suggest that leaders should put greater or less focus on the task in question and/or the relationship between the leader and the follower, depending on the development level of the follower. The four leadership styles are named, S1 telling and directing, S2 selling and coaching, S3 participating and supporting and S4 delegating and observing. Hersey and Blanchard (2001) situational theory is broken down as follows: S1: Telling / Directing Follower: R1: Low competence, low commitment / Unable and unwilling or insecure Leader: High task focus, low relationship focus When the follower cannot do the job and is unwilling or afraid to try, then the leader takes a highly directive role, telling them what to do but without a great deal of concern for the relationship. The leader may also provide a working structure, both for the job and in terms of how the person is controlled. The leader may first find out why the person is not motivated and if there are any limitations in ability. These two factors may be linked, for example where a person believes they are less capable than they should be may be in some form of denial or other coping. They follower may also lack self-confidence as a result. If the leader focused more on the relationship, the follower may become confused about what must be done and what is optional. The leader thus maintains a clear do this position to ensure all required actions are clear. S2: Selling / Coaching Follower: R2: Some competence, variable commitment / Unable but willing or motivated Leader: High task focus, high relationship focus When the follower can do the job, at least to some extent, and perhaps is over-confident about their ability in this, then telling them what to do may demotivate them or lead to resistance. The leader thus needs to sell another way of working, explaining and clarifying decisions. The leader thus spends time listening and advising and, where appropriate, helping the follower to gain necessary skills through coaching methods. Note: S1 and S2 are leader-driven. S3: Participating / Supporting Follower: R3: High competence, variable commitment / Able but unwilling or insecure Leader: Low task focus, high relationship focus When the follower can do the job, but is refusing to do it or otherwise showing insufficient commitment, the leader need not worry about showing them what to do, and instead is concerned with finding out why the person is refusing and thence persuading them to cooperate. There is less excuse here for followers to be reticent about their ability, and the key is very much around motivation. If the causes are found then they can be addressed by the leader. The leader thus spends time listening, praising and otherwise making the follower feel good when they show the necessary commitment. S4: Delegating / Observing Follower: R4: High competence, high commitment / Able and willing or motivated Leader: Low task focus, low relationship focus When the follower can do the job and is motivated to do it, then the leader can basically leave them to it, largely trusting them to get on with the job although they also may need to keep a relatively distant eye on things to ensure everything is going to plan. Followers at this level have less need for support or frequent praise, although as with anyone, occasional recognition is always welcome. Note: S3 and S4 are follower-led (p. 259-261). Roles and Responsibilities The focus on the athletic director as an employee, leader, and representative of interscholastic athletics is needed to understand the gravity of where athletic directors come from and who they have become today. Todays athletic directors have many difficult tasks. It is their job to ensure that interscholastic athletics perform at a very high level. In addition, it is imperative that athletic directors maintain the integrity of the student-athlete. Davis (2002) states that previously, leadership ability was assumed because of athletic success. Today, those in athletic director positions are getting more training and education in administrative leadership. The training and education allow the athletic director to begin providing leadership at the beginning of his/her job. Thus, the success of the interscholastic athletic program hinges on the type of leadership training and education received by the athletic director. Athletic directors job descriptions will continue to evolve as the requirements to managing a successful program evolve. One sample written job description of an athletic director for a small private school in Florida shows that their athletic director will perform the following duties: direct the athletic program, assure that the school complies with all policies and procedures of the Florida High School Athletic Association (FHSAA), supervise the scheduling of all athletic contests, identify and recommend the hiring and firing of coaches for each sport, ensure that all school policies and procedures are followed by the entire coaching staff (including, assistant coaches), in addition to many other duties as assigned by the headmaster of the school. After reviewing this job description one could see how little time there might be for an athletic director to provide direct leadership. With all of the tasks listed within the job description the athletic director must provide leadershi p more via example, rather than through direct communication with his/her student-athletes and coaching staff. Doing nothing more than following the specific tasks list of the job description above would associate the athletic director with transactional rather than transformational leadership. Simply following the task list of the job description would essentially provide the student-athletes with a basic and universal athletic program. The athletic director would also be performing his or her job duties for the sake of getting the most basic job done. This shows the community that the interest level of providing leadership on a much higher level to the community, student-athletes, and administration is obsolete. Most people are able to complete the tasks that are provided for them by a school administration. What exactly does this do for the advancement and recognition of the efforts put forth by the student-athletes, as well as teaching the student-athletes and coaches the value of having strong ethics and morals? The next sample job description is from a public school in Virginia: Athletic Director Requirements and Responsibilities are to work with administration and the assistant athletic director to create and maintain a comprehensive program for student activities that emphasizes positive public relations, coaching performance, and student recognition, utilize a computerized software program for scheduling, prepares and distributes schedules for athletic and academic competitions, including contracts where required, supervise the preparation and distribution of eligibility lists, ensure that all students participating in athletic or academic competition are eligible, and have a Virginia High School License (VHSL) physical form and Stonewall Jackson High Schools Handbook (SJHS) sign off on file, oversee the athletic/academic activities budget, approve all athletic expenditures, follow school procedures for ordering, and determine allocations for athletic/academic program with the principal, obtain officials, ticket takers, clock operators, announcers, etc. f or all home events, work with the transportation department to arrange transportation for away events and practices where necessary, attend district, regional, and state VHSL meetings, ensure that annual equipment and uniform inventories are conducted by head coaches, and assist head coaches in updating equipment/uniforms, assist principal in selection of coaching staff, complete evaluation form for each head coach with an endorsement by the principal at the end of the season, ensure that head coaches submit required documentation in a timely fashion at the end of each season, including evaluation form for assistant coaches, inventories, end of season reports, etc, work with the Booster Club in coordinating their activities, including presenting requests for funding for all programs to the Booster Club, submit news releases on awards, etc. to local media, supervise the maintenance of the Sports Zone web page and ensure that it is up-to-date at all times, inform local media, official s, coaches, bus drivers and administrators immediately upon cancellation of an event and rescheduled dates as soon as available; post cancellations/rescheduled games on web site, prepare money for ticket takers, water for officials, scoreboard, PA system, etc. for home events, supervise events in conjunction with the building administrators, serve as a liaison between school clubs, departments and administration for scheduling events which do not conflict with VHSL athletic and academic events, work with custodial staff for proper maintenance of facilities and equipment. When comparing the two job descriptions above, one can see how important the athletic director position is to interscholastic athletics. Each athletic director shares many of the same responsibilities regardless of the population within the school with which they are employed. As an employee, the Athletic Director is the second most important position next to the schools Principal. High school athletic directors are vital to ensuring that the climate of the school which they direct will stay positive and energized. The athletic director as a leader is an integral part of the school system. Each year, the job description of athletic directors becomes more complex. Recently, responsibilities added to the athletic directors job description are (a) purchasing and distribution of equipment, supplies, and uniforms, (b) planning and scheduling for the use of facilities, (c) public relations, (d) fund-raising, (e) legal and medical protection for coaches and student-athletes, (f) compliance with national and state policies and procedures, (g) administration of events, (h) completion of the goals and objectives of the school, and (i) implementation and management of media events (Smith, 1993). These responsibilities make it highly unlikely that just one individual can effectively manage a successful interscholastic athletic program, especially at a large school with a c omprehensive athletic program. ADs must be willing to put the time and effort into getting the job done. According to Barnhill, (1998) in order to do so, a high school athletic director must call on his/her support staff, such as coaches and other administrators at the school. Additionally, Barnhill (1998) stated the high school athletic director must be a leader with the ability to delegate and manage delegated tasks. If the athletic director fails at delegating and managing the tasks necessary to lead a successful athletic program, his/her coaches will begin to lose faith in the athletic directors ability to lead. The many responsibilities that an athletic director assumes when taking a position within administration are largely dictated by the athletic directors fellow administrators. The athletic directors position is supported by many other administrators such as the director of development, dean of students, director of advising, director of admissions, and director of college recruitment to name a few. The director of development will help the athletic director with fundraising for athletics, the dean of students assists the athletic director with student-athlete disciplinary issues, the director of admissions assists the athletic director in qualifying the students for eligibility, and the director of college recruitment assists the athletic director in qualifying student athletes for colle ge recruitment. With all of these administrators working together the leadership within the school is strong and successful. The athletic directors ability to recruit co-workers to assist in leading the department of athletics as well as the institution itself would classify him/her as a transformational leader. As stated earlier according to, Bass (1997) transformational leadership is universally applicable. He proposed that regardless of culture, transformational leaders inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the group or organization. In order for this to occur the transformational leader must possess certain characteristics to inspire followers. According to Parks and Quarterman (2003) stated, those characteristics include: trusting his or her subordinates, meaning that a good leader will make use of employees energy and talent. The key to productive relationship is mutual trust. Secondly, develop a vision for employees to follow a visionary leader. They want to know what they are working for. Thirdly, keeping his or her cool, explains that leaders demonstrate their met tle in crisis under fire. They inspire others to remain calm and to act intelligently. Fourth, they are experts at what they do, informing us that employees are much more likely to follow a leader that radiates confidence, is intuitive, and continues to master the profession. Fifth, they invite dissent, meaning a leader is willing to accept a variety of opinions and integrate them. Sixth, they simplify the position, so that leaders can focus on what is important and reach elegant, simple answers to complex problems by keeping the details to themselves. Lastly, they encourage risk. Risk encourages employees to take chances and readily accept error (p. 179-180). One who exudes all of these characteristics is often seen as a leader in sport that is few and far between. While it is important that any leader become an effective manager, being an effective manager and an effective leader are two different matters. According to Hersey and Blanchard (2001) the definition of management is the process of working with and through individuals and groups to accomplish organizational goals (p. 9). In addition, they defined leadership as the process of influencing the activities of an individual or a group in effort toward goal achievement in a given situation (p. 78). Some theorists suggest that both management and leadership are necessary to those who seek professional management in high school athletics and other sport careers. Parks and Quarterman (2003) stated that many athletic directors find themselves involved with management as a process approach. This approach sees managers using interactive activities such as planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting in order to accomplish the goals and objectives of the organ ization or institution. Conversely, the remaining athletic directors consider themselves as a leader in some capacity. As previously noted, two possible leadership styles of high school athletic directors nationwide are transformational and transactional. According to Bass (1985), transactional leaders are engulfed in the way of thinking that compliance is the key. The coach will get rewarded if he/she follows directions and orders. Additionally, Bass (1985) identified two factors as composing transactional leadership. Leaders can transact with followers by rewarding effort contractually, telling them what to do to gain rewards, punishing undesired action, and giving extra feedback and promotions for good work. Such transactions are referred to as contingent reward (CR) leadership. Field and Herold (1997) described transactional leadership as a reward-driven behavior, where the follower behaves in such a manner as to elicit rewards or support from the leader. If a high school athlet ic director is primarily transactional in style, coaches who work for that high school athletic director will only pursue the notion of success if they know ahead of time that there is a reward for achieving that success. In some instances, a primarily transactional leadership style may actually derive from the athletic directors own quest for external, tangible rewards. So, the question arises with many transactional leaders as to why they are involved with coaching or administration if all they are looking for is an end reward? Some administrators in athletics have not had relevant sports management training and likely have developed expertise in other areas, such as business, physical education, or simply general education. A high school athletic director with a traditional business background might be brought in by the administration simply to raise funds for the athletic program, manage the program, and direct the program much like one would manage a corporate operation. Likewi se, a high school athletic director who is brought in with a physical education background is traditionally done so because of his or her success with coaching the student-athlete and having the ability to get through to the student-athlete as needed to provide a successful interscholastic program. The umbrella that encompasses this can be very lucrative for the school if done correctly. In other words, an athletic director who has a physical education background starts out building r

A Speech Given By Frederick Do -- essays research papers

FREDERICK DOUGLASS’S POWERS OF APPEAL After his escape from slavery, Frederick Douglass chose to promote the abolition of slavery by speaking about the actions and effects that result from that institution. In an excerpt from a July 5, 1852 speech at Rochester, New York, Douglass asks the question: What to the slave is the Fourth of July? This question is a bold one, and it demands attention. The effectiveness of his oration is derived from the personal appeals in which he engages the listener. At once in this speech, Douglass appeals to his listeners’ religious tendencies. He asks his audience, “am I, therefore, called upon to bring our humble offering to the national altar…'; (441). Religious appeal is so important because the majority of his audience is Christian, and he implies that Christianity, in its ostensible purity, allows the mishandling of human life to the degree of slavery. By relating Christianity directly to slavery, his listeners must question the validity of their Christian doctrines in relation to the institution of slavery. In doing so, they must eliminate their acceptance of one of these traditions; the odds are that Christianity holds a much more loyal following than slavery, in which case slavery will be given up as a practice. Douglass also quotes from Psalms 137:1-6, and the ludicrous concept that slaveholders expect their slaves to be joyous in their state of bondage is the essential meaning of the passage he chooses as it relates to the comparable situation of the Babylonians’ captives (442). His persuasive appeal in this case is the notion that any pious Christian would have sympathy for the lamenting captives and contempt for the captors in the Psalms passage. If this assumption is correct, then the same pious Christians surely should realize the situation of the slaves on this day and every other. Additionally, in asking this question, he asserts immediately that the meaning of the Fourth of July is entirely different from that of the free, white American. Douglass concedes that the whites of America had reason to rejoice: “the rich inheritance of justice, liberty, prosperity, and independence'; (441). However, he also illustrates that there are just as many reasons for slaves to scorn the traditional meaning of the Fourth of July. Furthermore, these reasons are as ... ...w, with all of the activity and thinking life requires, the slave’s manhood can be questioned (443). For the white man listening to this argument, it is required that he empathizes with the situation of the slave, because in actuality there is much in common between the free and the enslaved. This is precisely Douglass’s point; bondage is the only hindrance of slaves’ abilities to lead a fulfilling life. Douglass’s appeals to his audience are specifically directed toward white, Christian males. He is fully aware at all times he must show that he can relate with them. As Christians, how should they have felt had they been denied their right to practice religion and believe in their god? What would they do if the country they so loved chained them to a life of servitude? Finally, what would all the work to support a family and desire for self-improvement have accomplished if it only benefited a master, but not a wife and children? Douglass deliberately addresses those aspects of life that mean the most to his audience because in doing so he is sure to gain the listeners’ full attention and consideration of the immorality of slavery.

Instrumental Conditioning

When one hears the term instrumental (operant) conditioning they tend to immediately think of the â€Å"Skinner-Box†. Skinner conducted classic experiments where he trained rats and pigeons to press a lever in order to obtain a food reward. The experimenter would choose a suited output to pair it with a consequence. After a training period, the animals would show the behavior (BH, e.g. pressing the lever) even in absence of any reward, if the BH-US association had been memorized. Instrumental conditioning differs from classical conditioning in that it operates on the environment and refers to the modification of voluntary behavior. For the purposes of this paper I will evaluate the application of instrumental conditioning to learning how to use the toilet (potty-training). I will describe the process of potty-training, and compare and contrast the concepts of positive and negative reinforcement as they relate to potty-training. I will explain the role of reward and punishment in potty-training as well as explain which form of instrumental conditioning would be most effective in potty-training. What is Instrumental Conditioning? â€Å"Instrumental conditioning is a process by which humans and animals learn to behave in such a way as to obtain rewards and avoid punishments. It is also the name for the paradigm in experimental psychology by which such learning and action selection processes are studied† (Staddon & Cerutti, 2003). All behavior is guided by consequences. Dogs beg/perform tricks for treats; politicians study poll results in order to steer the directions of their campaigns. Instrumental conditioning similarly is goal-oriented behavior. The selecting consequences that guide operant conditioning are of two kinds: behavior-enhancing (reinforcers) and behavior-suppressing (punishers). The most important factor in instrumental conditioning is the consequence of the response. â€Å"Responding often seems to be under exquisite control of the reinforcement conditions: Larger and tastier rewards provoke more vigorous response, delayed rewards weaken responding, and satiation of drive leads to a reduction in responding† (Terry, 2009). This consequence takes place because of an arranged contingency (relationship) between the occurrence of the response and the delivery of the reinforcer. The response is â€Å"instrumental† in acquiring the reinforcer, which is the reason this type of conditioning is referred to as instrumental conditioning. The response in turn â€Å"operates† on the environment causing a kind of change which is why it is also known as operant conditioning. Instrumental Conditioning and Potty-Training The Process of Potty-Training. Potty-training—the process of training a young child to use the toilet. Children typically begin to exhibit signs of readiness between the ages of 12 to 18 months and the process is usually fully completed by the time the child reaches 4 years old. Generally it takes longer to learn to stay dry during the night, however most children have mastered this by age 4. Cultural factors also play a role in determining the appropriate age of readiness for potty-training, with Americans usually beginning training later than other cultures (Paul, 2008). Potty-training is a mutual activity requiring cooperation, understanding and agreement between the child and the caregiver. The best methods emphasize consistency and positive reinforcement (over punishment) in order to make it a pleasant experience for the child. Research suggests that around 18 months old is the ideal time to start training due to the child's eagerness to please his/her parents. Positive and Negative Reinforcement. Positive reinforcement refers to the presence of a response-to-reinforcer relationship. â€Å"In positive reinforcement, the reinforcer is contingent on performance of the instrumental response† (Terry, 2009). Each action is followed by an outcome or consequence. Negative reinforcement involves particular behaviors being strengthened (increased) by the consequence of stopping or avoiding a negative condition. It is often confused with punishment, but they are very different. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior whereas punishment weakens (decreases) behavior because a negative condition is introduced as a consequence of the behavior. For example, driving in rush hour traffic is a negative condition for most people. One day they decide to leave home a little earlier, and avoid running into the heavy traffic. They leave home at the same time the next day and again avoid heavy traffic. Their behavior of leaving home earlier is strengthened by the consequence of the avoidance of heavy traffic. Positive and Negative Reinforcement as they Relate to Potty-Training. According to Terry (2009) when teaching our children we most often tell them the rules between behaviors and consequences. In some instances the contingencies are simply left for the subject (child) to discover on his/her own. In potty-training, the child must discover what response is necessary to stay dry and receive a reward. Positive reinforcement is the basic practice of rewarding a child for displaying a desired behavior, such as using the potty. The most successful method is to find what your particular child likes most of all, which for the majority of children is either a treat or a toy. When your child acts as desired you use positive reinforcement by rewarding him or her with this highly preferred item as close to the behavior as possible. Add in praise and positive reinforcement has been achieved. The main reason positive reinforcement works so well for potty-training is the way in which a child learns– through association. In contrast, children are not in a rush to move from diapers to using the potty on their own. New behaviors are seldom if ever, accomplished perfectly the first few times. During this time there will be mistakes. That is what learning is all about. When negative reinforcement is used for mistakes then the child learns that new growth experiences should be avoided at all costs, no matter what the new growth opportunity is. Negative reinforcement will likely cause negative outcomes not only in potty training, but in the way the child grasps future experiences. The Role of Reward and Punishment in Potty-Training Rewards. There are many different types of rewards that can be used to motivate toddlers to potty-train. What is most important is that the reward be given immediately following any successful attempt to use a potty. The best rewards are verbal praise, however some may wish to use a small treat as a reward. Positively responding to the child's achievement shows the child that you approve and support them. Positive attention increases the chance of the child repeating the behavior. Rewards and verbal praise should be easy, quick, and inexpensive. Rewards should be given immediately, are not used in place of praise (social reinforcement), used specially for potty-training and not made available any other time, given for the tasks the child can already manage. As the child is managing new skills, praise should be continued and other types of rewards gradually reduced. Punishments. Punishment should not be used if a child has an accident. Some children become upset and frustrated while potty-training so it may help to use clever phrases like â€Å"That silly pee pee just wouldn't wait for the potty, let's see if we can catch it the next time†. Caregivers should remain calm and relaxed rather than punitive when potty-training because it is supposed to be a fun and educational experience. In my own quest to potty-train my children, I have found positive reinforcement to be the most effective training method. The times I got upset and showed anger in response to accidents only served to frighten them and discourage them from trying again. The Most Effective Form of Instrumental Conditioning in Potty-Training In my opinion, the most effective form of instrumental conditioning in potty-training is the use of positive reinforcement so that the child learns to generalize his/her behavior across situations. Positive reinforcement gives the child the courage and confidence s/he needs to be able to use the potty not only in the home/caregiver setting, but in other places as well, thus generalizing his/her behavior. â€Å"The potential strengthening effects of a reinforcer are usually confounded with its reward or incentive effects, both of which lead to improved performance† (Terry, 2009). In other words, the more positive and frequent the praise (and other rewards), the more likely the child is to repeat the desired behavior. Conclusion Instrumental conditioning is dependent on people to act upon their environment and their behavior is subsequently shaped by the response their behavior solicits. Those responses that evoke an increased state of satisfaction are generally repeated as opposed to responses that render a person dissatisfied are likely to decrease. A vital factor in instrumental conditioning is the concept of positive and negative reinforcement. In potty-training a child, the use of positive reinforcement is the most highly effective form of motivation as it increases the likelihood of them repeating desired behavior. In closing, I have evaluated the application of instrumental conditioning to learning how to use the toilet (potty-training). I have described the process of potty-training, and compared and contrasted the concepts of positive and negative reinforcement as they relate to potty-training. I have explained the role of reward and punishment in potty-training as well as explained which form of instrumental conditioning would be most effective in potty-training.

Monsanto Expansion

Monsanto expansion Monsanto Corporation was discovered in SST. Louis Missouri in 1901. The Monsanto Chemical Company was built for its business of selling food additives such as saccharin and caffeine. During the past ten years or so, Monsanto had merged its chemicals business to focus on biotechnology. By using whole systems of herbicides, pesticides and genetically engineered seeds designed to flourish In an environment swamped with chemicals, Monsanto promised to help farmers nourish the world more resourcefully.Monsanto, well known for its lies and soiled dealing in pesticides, was founded Just to remote saccharin in 1901 which led to further dishonestly. What was its main customer at the time? A drink company named Coca-Cola. Approximately 60 percent of food produced in the United States has pesticides. Monsanto Indeed had been changing the genes of these foods. Monsanto started producing EDT In 1944. Rachel Carbon's Silent Spring talked about how pesticides were bad for our env ironment. In many cases she is right. Pesticides are harmful to every part of life. When pesticides enter a body it will never leave, the body cannot break it down.The Monsanto Company made up their own version called â€Å"The desolate year. This story shows the effects if there were no pesticides and no way to terminate Insects. This story Is about Insects over-running a world lacking pesticide poisons. Another book called â€Å"Desolate Spring† that showed an America land waste not by pesticides but by insects: â€Å"The bugs were everywhere. Rachel Carson could not respond because of cancer tumors in her cervical vertebrae. This caused loss of function In her right writing hand, than her death 18 months later from breast cancer. When Rachel Carbon's Silent Spring was published in 1963Monsanto biotech seeds and traits accounted for almost 90 percent of the total world area. It was devoted to Genetically Modified seeds by 2007. Today, over 80 percent of the worldwide regi on Is devoted to Genetically Modifying crops carrying at least one genetic trait for herbicide tolerance. Herbicides account for about one-third of the global pesticide market. Monsanto glasshouse-resistant are â€Å"Roundup Ready seeds that have reigned extreme on the biotech scene for over a decade. Roundup is the world's biggest selling pesticides and it has helped make Monsanto the world's fifth largest agrochemical corporation. Whiteners and food additives, pharmaceuticals, industrial materials and agricultural chemicals. The company's history was mainly in the chemicals industry. Having started in 1901 as a manufacturer of saccharin; by the sass's Monsanto was involved in businesses with oil/gas exploration, the production of acetic acid, plastics, synthetic rubber, resins, polystyrene, polyethylene, insulation, flame retardant materials, and Astronaut. In 1978, agriculture and food processing together accounted for Just 17 per cent of the company's sales. Nowadays, Monsanto is one of the world's largest seed companies.Although it remains the manufacturer of the world's best selling herbicide brand and roundup; it has shed its industrial and specialty chemicals divisions. The sweeteners business and even the pharmaceutical subsidiary which it acquired in 1985 is now an agricultural business that focuses on herbicides and seeds and is 2 completely head of the global market for genetically modified crop traits. The major elements of this dramatic transformation in the company's profile occurred in only about ten years between the early sass's and the early sass's.The effects that these pesticides Monsanto began making became hazardous to all existing creatures. When making â€Å"2, 3, 5 -T† in the late sass's, its workers developed skin irritations, Joint/limb pain, weakness, petulance, nervousness and loss of libido. It also caused Cancer and liver disorders. As obstetricians in Vietnam are aware, horrible fetal deformities have also been strongly linked to the tainted herbicide. In 1944, being one of fifteen companies licensed to do so, Monsanto began manufacturing EDT. EDT is a synthetic pesticide used for agriculture; to help rid of insects and help aid disease control.EDT was exiled after the â€Å"Environmental Protection Agency' found out these chemicals were going to be toxic to society. Monsanto was also one of very few companies to produce the defoliant â€Å"Agent Orange† during the Vietnam War causing over 900,000 deaths, disabilities and birth defects. In total, over 4. 8 million Vietnamese were exposed to this highly lethal chemical, as well as 20 percent of the Southern Vietnamese Jungle over nine years. The introduction of Genetically Modified crops has been promoted by three impasses Monsanto, Agents, and Brayer.These businesses are responsible for virtually all of the commercially released â€Å"Genetically Modified† crops in the world today. Now Monsanto 3 selling â€Å"Roundup-Ready' soybea ns, canola and corn seeds, which are produce plants that can stand high doses of Monsanto herbicide Roundup. Recently Monsanto has obtained several seed companies including â€Å"Holder's Foundation Seeds†, â€Å"Grows',† Agronomics†,† Deckle Genetics†, â€Å"Delta and Pine Land† and â€Å"Segments Grocer's†. In effect Monsanto is controlling the grain market. Its genetic engineered, herbicide resistant seed could become the only choice for farmers.In addition Monsanto merger with American Home Products creates the biggest manufacturer of pesticides and herbicides in the planet. If Monsanto dominates both the grain and pesticide market there is no way anyone will be able to contend with them. There are four crops that have been the primary source of genetically modification. These crops are soybeans, maize, cotton and canola. In the world marketplace these crops have turn out to be pretty noteworthy. According to industry sources; soybea ns, size, cotton and canola constitute 99 percent of the world's acreage of GM crops.With soybeans alone covering 60 percent of the total planted area, it was estimated that 56 percent of the soybeans being farmed were genetically modified. Cotton was 28 percent genetically modified and Maize 19 percent. Today, most of these GM crops are concentrated in a few countries. During the first seven years of nurturing in 1996 and 2002 only three countries the United States, Argentina and Canada were in counted for. In 2004, more than 84 percent of â€Å"Genetically Modified† crops were still encountered in these same three countries.